Present methods for forming electrical connections, for example in integrated circuits, have shortcomings. For example, though soldering is popular, solder has a relatively low melting point, which places temperature limits on subsequent processing steps as well as on the finished product. Also, solder atoms tend to migrate along copper joints, thereby changing the electrical and mechanical properties of soldered joints as they age. Direct metal-to-metal (e.g., copper-to-copper (Cu—Cu) bonds, etc.) obviates the need for solder, but cost effective processes for producing such bonds on a large scale have proven elusive since high temperatures, high pressures, and long dwell times complicate, add cost to, and add delay to the assembly process.